The Magic of Mushrooms Part 3
In Part 1 we looked at contemporary use of medicinal and functional or adaptogenic mushrooms, in Part 2 we looked at the long and complex relationship between humanity and mushrooms and what the future potentially hoilds and here, in part 3 we ask the more fundamental question, what are they and what roles do they play in nature
SO WHAT ARE MUSHROOMS?
In the initial articles of this series, we adopted a broad approach to the term "mushroom" for simplicity's sake. However, in this concluding piece—for the moment—we aim to refine our terminology and delve deeper into the fascinating realm of these enigmatic entities.
A mushroom is indeed just a visible part of a much larger and mostly hidden organism. This organism belongs to the kingdom Fungi, and the visible mushroom is the fruiting body, which is produced for reproduction. The majority of the fungal organism exists as an extensive network of filaments known as mycelium.
Mycelium: The Main Body of the Fungus
The mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like structures called hyphae. These hyphae are microscopic and grow through and into the substrate (such as soil, wood, or other organic material) that the fungus is decomposing or with which it has a symbiotic relationship. The mycelium is responsible for absorbing nutrients from the environment, serving as the main mode of growth and sustenance for the fungus. You could consider it the same as referring to an entire apple tree as an apple.
Functions of Mycelium
Mycelium secretes enzymes that break down complex organic materials into simpler compounds, which the fungus can absorb. This process not only feeds the fungus but also plays a crucial role in breaking down dead plant and animal matter, recycling nutrients through the ecosystem.
Many fungi form symbiotic associations with plants (mycorrhizae), where the mycelium interacts closely with plant roots to exchange nutrients for carbohydrates. These relationships can significantly enhance plant growth, water uptake, and disease resistance.
The mycelium network can transport nutrients and chemical signals across different parts of the fungus and even between plants. Some studies suggest that these networks can help plants communicate, sharing information about pests, diseases, and nutrients.
The Role of the Mushroom
The mushroom emerges from the mycelium when environmental conditions are right, usually involving the right combination of moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability. The primary role of the mushroom is reproductive:
Spore Production and Dispersal: The underside of the mushroom cap, depending on the species, may contain gills, pores, or teeth, where spores are produced. Once mature, these spores are released into the environment, carried by wind, water, or animals. If they land in suitable conditions, they germinate, producing new hyphae, which then grow into a new mycelium network.
The Scale of Mycelium
The mycelium of a single fungus can be astonishingly vast. In some cases, such as the honey fungus (Armillaria ostoyae) in Oregon, the mycelium spreads over nearly 4 square miles (10 square kilometers) and is thousands of years old, making it one of the largest and oldest living organisms on Earth.
In summary, while mushrooms are the most visible and often the most familiar part of a fungus, they are merely the "tip of the iceberg." The vast majority of the fungal organism exists as mycelium, an extensive, dynamic network responsible for nutrient absorption, decomposition, and forming symbiotic relationships, playing a vital role in ecosystems worldwide.
HOW ARE MUSHROOMS AND MYCELIUM CATEGORISED?
Mushrooms (and fungi in general) are indeed more closely related to animals than to plants on the evolutionary tree. This relationship is based on several key cellular and genetic characteristics:
ARE THEY MORE ANIMAL THAN PLANT?
In 1993, researchers Baldouf and Palmer made a significant contribution to the field of evolutionary biology with their groundbreaking paper, "Animals and fungi are each other’s closest relatives: congruent evidence from multiple proteins". Through an in-depth comparison of 25 proteins and their DNA sequences across bacteria, plants, animals, and fungi, they uncovered remarkable similarities between animals and fungi. Specifically, they noted that certain proteins shared by animals and fungi were not found in plants and bacteria. This discovery provided strong evidence that contradicted traditional and prevailing classification systems, suggesting a closer evolutionary relationship between animals and fungi than either has with plants. The researchers argued that this evidence across multiple lines of inquiry convincingly points to animals and fungi forming a 'sister group', with plants representing a distinct evolutionary path. This revelation has profound implications for our understanding of life's evolutionary tree, suggesting a reevaluation of how we classify and perceive the interconnectedness of living organisms.Cell Walls: Unlike plants, which have cell walls made of cellulose, fungi have cell walls composed of chitin, the same material found in the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods.
Nutrient Absorption: Fungi absorb nutrients from their environment in a manner more akin to the digestive processes of animals. They secrete enzymes into their surroundings to break down complex molecules, which are then absorbed through their cell walls. In contrast, plants produce their own food through photosynthesis.
Storage of Carbohydrates: Fungi store their energy primarily as glycogen, similar to animals, whereas plants store energy as starch.
Roles in the Ecosystem
Fungi, including those forming mushrooms, play critical roles in ecosystems, serving as decomposers, mutualists, and sometimes pathogens. Their activities are essential for nutrient cycling, soil formation, and the maintenance of ecological balances.
Decomposers: Many fungi are saprophytes, meaning they feed on dead or decaying organic matter. By breaking down complex organic compounds (such as lignin and cellulose found in wood) into simpler molecules, they release nutrients back into the soil, making them available for other organisms. This role is crucial in forest ecosystems, where large quantities of plant material fall to the ground and decay.
Mutualists: Some fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants, algae, and even animals. One of the most significant of these relationships is mycorrhiza, a mutualistic association between fungi and plant roots. In mycorrhizal associations, the fungus enhances the plant's water and nutrient absorption capabilities, while the plant supplies the fungus with carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis. This relationship is vital for the health of many ecosystems, enhancing plant growth and soil structure.
Pathogens: Some fungi act as pathogens to plants and animals, including humans. While this role can lead to disease and crop loss, it is also a natural part of ecological dynamics, controlling population sizes and fostering biodiversity.
Bioindicators and Bioremediators: Fungi, including mushroom-producing species, can serve as bioindicators of environmental health due to their sensitivity to changes in their environment. Some fungi also have the ability to break down pollutants in soil and water, a process known as bioremediation.
Trees and other plants can communicate and exchange nutrients through the mycelial network under the soil
THE WOOD WIDE WEB
The concept of the "Wood Wide Web" refers to the intricate system of underground mycelial networks created by fungi, which connects trees and plants in forests and other ecosystems. This network facilitates communication and nutrient exchange among plants, functioning somewhat like an organic internet. The term itself is a playful nod to the World Wide Web, emphasizing the complexity and connectivity of these fungal networks.
The term "Wood Wide Web" was popularized by Professor Suzanne Simard, a forest ecologist at the University of British Columbia, although it's not clear if she was the first to use the term. It cleverly plays on the name of the World Wide Web to describe the complex, underground network of mycorrhizal fungi that connects trees and plants in a forest. This network allows for the exchange of nutrients, water, and signals among plants, creating a symbiotic relationship between the fungal network and the forest's flora. Simard's research has significantly advanced our understanding of these mycorrhizal networks, highlighting their critical role in forest ecosystems, including how they contribute to plant communication, health, and resilience.
HOW IT WORKS
Fungi, particularly mycorrhizal fungi, form symbiotic associations with plants through their roots. There are two main types of mycorrhizal associations:
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which penetrate the root cells of plants.
Ectomycorrhizal fungi, which form a sheath around plant roots and penetrate between root cells but not into the cells themselves.
Through these associations, the mycelium of the fungi extends far beyond the root system of a single plant, connecting multiple plants within a given area.
COMMUNICATION
The mycelial network allows plants to communicate in several ways:
Nutrient Sharing: Plants can share nutrients via the mycelial network. For example, older or larger trees, known as "mother trees," can distribute nutrients to younger saplings, helping them grow in conditions where light or other resources are scarce.
Stress Signals: Plants can also send chemical signals through the network, alerting their neighbors to environmental stresses such as drought, disease, or insect infestations. This can prompt neighboring plants to bolster their own chemical defenses in anticipation of the threat.
Supporting Biodiversity: The network helps support biodiversity by balancing the distribution of resources among plants, ensuring that no single species dominates the ecosystem. This balance is crucial for ecosystem resilience and health.
NUTRIENT EXCHANGE
The exchange of nutrients through the mycelial network is not just one-way traffic from fungi to plants. While plants provide the fungi with carbohydrates produced via photosynthesis, the fungi supply the plants with water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other minerals they extract from the soil. This mutual exchange is fundamental to the survival and prosperity of both parties.
Research and Implications
The discovery and ongoing research into the Wood Wide Web are transforming our understanding of forest ecosystems. This interconnectedness challenges the traditional view of plants as individual entities competing for resources. Instead, it suggests that forests function as collaborative, interconnected systems.
Understanding the Wood Wide Web also has practical implications for forestry management, conservation, and agriculture. Recognising the importance of mycorrhizal networks could lead to practices that support soil health, plant resilience, and ecosystem sustainability.
WHY WE SAY NO TO THE PLOUGH
Ploughing significantly disrupts the natural structures and functions of soil ecosystems, including the "Wood Wide Web"—the mycorrhizal fungal networks that facilitate communication and nutrient exchange among plants. This disruption affects plants' abilities to communicate and share resources, with broader implications for the nutritional content of the crops we eat.
DISRUPTION OF MYCORRHIZAL NETWORKS
Physical Disruption: Ploughing physically breaks apart the mycorrhizal networks, severing the connections between plants. These networks are crucial for the transfer of water, nutrients, and signaling molecules that help plants manage stress, fight off pests, and optimize their growth. When these networks are disrupted, plants become more isolated, losing access to the shared resources and communication channels that mycorrhizal fungi facilitate.
Soil Structure and Health: Beyond breaking mycorrhizal connections, ploughing alters the soil's physical structure and health. It can lead to compaction, reduce organic matter, and disrupt soil organisms' habitats. This degradation can diminish the soil's fertility and its ability to support healthy mycorrhizal networks.
IMPACT ON NUTRIENT UPTAKE
Mycorrhizal fungi play a critical role in nutrient cycling and uptake. They enhance plants' access to nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and micronutrients that are essential for growth. By extending hyphae far beyond the root zone, they can access and transport nutrients from soil areas otherwise unreachable by plant roots alone. When ploughing disrupts these networks:
Reduced Nutrient Access: Plants may struggle to access essential nutrients efficiently, which can impact their growth, health, and nutritional content.
Dependency on FertiliSers: To compensate for the loss of natural nutrient acquisition pathways, there's often an increased reliance on chemical fertilizers. While fertilizers can replace some essential nutrients, they do not fully replicate the benefits of a healthy mycorrhizal network and can further degrade soil health and microbial diversity over time.
EFFECTS ON PLANT NUTRITION AND HUMAN HEALTH
The disruption of mycorrhizal networks and the resulting changes in nutrient uptake mechanisms can lead to crops with lower nutritional value. For instance, plants that grow in less healthy soils with diminished mycorrhizal networks might have lower levels of certain micronutrients and antioxidants, which are critical for human health. Furthermore, the shift towards a greater reliance on chemical fertilizers can lead to food with higher nitrate concentrations and possibly reduced concentrations of beneficial phytochemicals.
DEEP REGENERATION FARMING
The act of ploughing poses a profound disruption to the intricate mycorrhizal networks that serve as the lifeline of terrestrial ecosystems. These networks, which facilitate communication and the exchange of nutrients among plants, embody a remarkable form of collective intelligence and cooperation beneath our feet. When the plough blade cuts through the soil, it severs these vital connections, much like disrupting the veins of the Earth, which in turn can diminish the nutritional integrity of the food produced. This disturbance not only impacts the immediate health of the soil and its resident communities but also sets off a chain reaction that reverberates through the food web, affecting the nutritional quality of the crops we depend on for sustenance.
This situation invites us to reflect on the interconnectedness of all life forms and the delicate balance that sustains ecosystems. It challenges the anthropocentric view that places humans above and apart from nature, urging us instead to recognise our role as participants in a complex web of relationships that demand respect and care. The destruction of mycorrhizal networks underscores the broader environmental and ethical implications of our agricultural practices, highlighting how actions that seem beneficial or neutral on the surface can have deep, unseen consequences.
Transitioning to regenerative agricultural practices offers a path forward that honours and preserves these essential mycorrhizal networks. Regenerative agriculture encompasses a spectrum of practices designed to work with nature rather than against it, including minimal soil disturbance, cover cropping, crop rotation, and the integration of permaculture principles. By fostering soil health, enhancing biodiversity, and restoring natural cycles, regenerative methods not only protect the mycorrhizal networks but also contribute to the resilience and vitality of the entire ecosystem.
Such a shift requires a philosophical reorientation towards agriculture, one that views farming not as a means of extraction but as a form of ecological stewardship. It involves recognising the soil as a living entity rather than a mere substrate, understanding that healthy, vibrant soils are the foundation for nutritious foods and sustainable food systems. This approach invites a deeper engagement with the land, encouraging farmers and consumers alike to act as caretakers of the Earth, nurturing its health for current and future generations.
In embracing regenerative practices, we at New Foundation Farms acknowledge our dependence on and responsibility to the web of life that sustains us. This holistic perspective not only aims to produce healthier crops but also fosters a more harmonious relationship with the planet, promoting a vision of agriculture that is both sustainable and ethically grounded. Through such practices, we can begin to heal the wounds inflicted on the Earth and move towards a future where humans and natureands fungi thrive together in mutual support and respect.